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Anatolia
has given rise to many civilizations in the course of
history. Although not as advanced as Egypt or Mesopotamia,
the Hatti, who spoke a language characterized by prefixes,were
nevertheless one of the more advanced societies of their age(3000-2000B.C.).
The objects on display at the Ankara Museum of Anatolian
Civilizations constitute the finest Bronze Age collection in
the world next to the Ur Treasure in the British Museum. The
Ankara collection, dated at 2000-1900B.C., comes from tumuli
at Alacahoyuk, Horoztepe and Mahmatlar, and includes
artifacts in gold silver, electrum bronze and ceramic. An Outpost Against Invasion From The Balkans : Troy During the time of the Hatti, Troy I (3000-2500) and Troy II (2500-2200) represented the Bronze Age in northwestern Anatolia, that is to say at Canakkale.Both fell within the sphere of Aegean culture, and Troy II had a particularly brilliant age. The gold vessels unearthed by Heinrich Schliemann, and kept in the Berlin Völkerkunde Museum, unfortunately vanished during World War II. The riches of Troy are now represented by the gold jewellery on display in the Istanbul museum of Archaelogy. Troy III-V (2200-1800B.C.) is a continuation of Troy II. Migration Of Indo-European Peoples Into Anatolia The Hatti-Hittite Princedoms The Indo-European migrations, which took place over a vast territory extending from Western Europe to India, brought some peoples over the Caucasus into Anatolia. The Nesi people settled in Central Anatolia, the Pala in Paphlygonia, and the Luwians in Southern Anatolia. In the course of these migrations the new arrivals gradually captured the Hatti princedoms to form first the Old Hittite Kingdom (1660-1460 B.C.), and than the Great Hittite Kingdom(1460-1190 B.C.). The Hittite Empire (1660-1190 B.C.) The Hittites founded a federative feudal state, and during their final two centuries constituted one of the two superpowers of the age, the other being Egypt. Indo-European in origin, the Hittites recognized equality between men and women,and indeed their law incoporated rights even for slaves. No other legal system in the world at that time was so advanced. Although the monarchy passed from father to son, this was a kingship based on the idea of "primus inter pares",first among equals, for the ruler was required to bring many matters before the senate, which was made up of aristocrats known as the Pankus class. At a time in the Near East when the flaying and impaling of enemies was the rule, when heads and hands would be lopped off and pyramids made of them, the Hittites were astonishingly humane, almost like civilized of nations today. The Hittites adopted the Hatti religion, mythology, language and customs, as well as their names for places, mountains, rivers and persons. Because the Mesopotamians called Anatolia "the Land of the Hatti", the newcomers were mistakenly given the name "Hittite". Hittite architecture was highly original, and included the strongest city walls of the Near East in the second millenium B.C. They also built the most magnificent temples, and developed a figurative art that was to be widespread in Anatolia. The Ilium of Homer's Iliad Troy VI (1800-1275 B.C.) As the Hittites were settling in Central Anatolia, another Indo-European people were flourishing in the Canakkale region at Troy VI, which today is one of Turkey's finest ruins, with a city wall preserved to a height of four meters, and a number of well preserved megaron type houses. The Ilium of King Priam, in Homer's epic, corresponds to layer VIh(1325-1275 B.C.), and was destroyed in an earthquake, while the city captured by the Achaeans was Troy VIIe (1275-1240/1200 B.C.). When Troy VIh was destroyed in an earthquake in 1275 B.C., followed by the pillaging of Troy VIIa in 1240/1200 at the hands of The Achaeans, a staunch outpost against incursions from the nortwest- an outpost which had stood for two thousand years was gone. And indeed, the crude hand-made pottery discovered in Troy VIIb2 / 1240-1190 B.C.),like the Buckelceramic pots found in Troy VIIb2 (1190-110), are of Balkan Origin. Having captured Troy in 1200, the Balkan peoples proceeded to occupy Anatolia in waves; around 1190 they destroyed the Hittite capital of Hattusas and penetrated as far south as the Assyrian border. Civilizations Which Influenced The Hellens The Urartu Kingdom(860-580 B.C.) and The Phrygians(750-300 B.C.) In southeastern and eastern Anatolia, which seem not to have been much affected by the migrations of the Balkan peoples, the Late Hittite Princedoms(1200-700 B.C.) and the Urartu Kingdom (860-580 B.C.)produced a high level of culture. In the 8th century B.C. the Hellenes came in contact with the rich two-thousand-year-old heritage of Mesopotamia through the intermediary of the Late Hittite Princedoms living in southeastern Anatolia. The Hellenes acquired the Phoenician alphabet from Al Mina, and the mythology and figurative art which we see in Homer and Hesiod, from such Late Hittite cities as Kargamish and Malatya. The helmet of a Hellene in the 8th century, along with his shield, various belts and different hair styles, were just like Those of the Hittites. Hellenic figurative and decorative art in the 8th and 7th centuries followed Hittite styles and iconography. Although the Urartus were strongly influenced in their art by Assyrian and Late Hittite example, they produced fine artifacts which they were able to export to Hellas and Etruscan cities. The Phrygians were among the Balkan peoples who came into Anatolia around the year 1200 B.C., but they first appear on the scene as a political entitiyafter the year 750 B.C. The Hellenic world knew of the Phrygian King Midas as a legendary figure with long ears who turned to gold everything that the touched. The Assyrians, on the other hand , record that he qas king in 717, 715, 712 and 709 B.C. Although the powerful kingdom which Midas founded was swept away by the Cimmerians in the First quarter of the 7th century, scattered groupings of the Phrygians continued to evolve their civilization in Central Anatolia though the 6th century B.C. The Phrygian rock temples and treasures in the vicinity of Eskisehir and Afyon are quite well preserved, and among the finest works produced by their age. Three Intriguing Anatolian Peoples: Lydia, Caria and Lycia The Lydians and Lycians spoke languages that were fundamentally Indo-European, but both languages had acquired non-Indo-European elements prior to the Hittite and Hellenic periods. Both alphabets closely resembled that of the Hellenes. During the reign of Creosus, fabled for his wealth (575-545 B.C.) the Lydian capital of Sardes was one of the most brilliant cities of the ancient world. Although the Carian alphabet resembles the Lycian, the Carian language has not been deciphered to date. Herodotus says that according to a cretan legend the Carians were called Leleges and lived on the islands during the time of the Minoan Kingdom, that is, in the mid-2nd millenium B.C. The Carians themselves, however, claimed to be native Anatolians, related to the Lydians and Mysians. The archaelogical finds pertaining to all three cultures show strong Hellenic influence. Of the three, the Lycians best kept their own character. Their monuments hollowed out of the rock are among the most interesting works of art in ancient Anatolia. The Ionian Civilization (1050-1030 B.C.) Following the destruction of Troy, the Hellenes established cities all along the Western Anatolian shore. In the 9th century B.C. they produced the first masterpiece of Western Civilization, the Iliad of Homer. During the era of the natural philosophers, i.e. 600-545 B.C., Anatolian culture was of a brilliance unmatched in the world of its time, superceding Egypt and Mesopotamia Rejecting the idea of djinns, fairies and mythological causes, the natural philosophers investigated natural phenomena in a free spirit; Thales, son of the Carian Hexamyes, using the same methods we would today, predicted an eclipse of the sun for May 28, 585 B.C. This was the first prediction of a natural event in history. During the occupation of the Persians (545-333 B.C.), Anatolia relinguished its leadership, but regained it in the Hellenistic Age (333-30 B.C.). Throughout these centuries, Milletus, Priene, Ephesus and Teos were among the finest cities in the world, and the Anatolian architecture of this era greatly influenced Rome. Bluffer's Guide to the Anatolian Iron Age By Roger Norman- Turkish Daily News The Roman Age (30 B.C. - 595 A.D.) The Romans developed the technique of mortaring bricks together, thereby producing arches, vaults and domes of large volume. These were the first major feats of enineering in history, and although the very first were at Rome, it soon became the turn of Anatolia Fine cities sprang up not only in the south and west of the peninsula, but also in its heartland. In all of these cities there were such monumental works as an agora, gymnasium, stadium, theater, baths and foundations, and many of them were of marble. The roads, too, were paved with marble and lined with colonnades, thus protecting the citizens from sun and dust in the summer, and from cold and mud in the winter. Water channeledinto the cities via aquedects sprang from the fountains, and a fine, well maintained network of roads and stone bridges connected the cities on the peninsula. Dozens of ancient cities in Western and Southern Anatolia, portions of them almost as they were in Roman times, fill visitors with awe. The First Christian State in the World The Byzantine Empire (330-1453 A.D.) Byzantine art was born in Anatolia at the end of the Roman era. As the Roman art of sculpture and architectural decoration entered a period of decline toward the end of the 3rd century, new life was breathed into them by early Christian practitioners of both arts. One might say that early Christian and Byzantine art were an expressionistics rendering of Roman themes; where architectural space was concerned, they represented a whole new approach. For two and a half centuries, from 300 to 565 A.D., Constantinople (Istanbul) was the leading city of the world in art and culture. The most brilliant time for the early Christian era was the reign of Justinian (527-565). Hagia Sophia, a centrally domed basilica, was built perior to this (532-539), and is the masterpiece of Byzantine art, one of the most famous works in the entire world. The best preserved Byzantine religious buildings are Hagia Irini Church (6th and 8th centuries), the Basilica of St. John (Justinian's reign) and the Church of Mary (4th and 6th centuries), both in Ephesus, and the Alahan Church (5th and 6th centuries) in Southeastern Anatolia. From the Late Byzantine era the best preserved and finest works are St. Mary Pammakaristos (1310) next to Fethiye Mosque, and Kariye Mosque, that is to say the Chora Church, both in Istanbul. In the latter two buildings, the multidomed ceiling harmonizes beautifully with the walls and their three-staged arches. The first people to dwell in all of Anatolia were the Turks. The Hittites, Phrygians and Greeks lived in only part of the peninsula. The Turks arrived in Anatolia from Central Asia by way of continual migrations and incursions, and through their policy of tolerance in government earned the love of the Indo-European peoples living on the peninsula.It was the Turks who adopted Islam, and on this basis mingled with the local peoples starting in 1071. The passage of nine centuries has resulted in present-day Turkey. Until recently it was thought that contemporary Western civilization was based on the Greeks, but archaelogy and history now show that it goes back rather to beginnings in western and south-western Anatolia. The Ottoman State (1299-1923). Following the weakening of the Anatolian Seljuk State, several beylics from various Turkish tribes emerged in Anatolia. One of these beylics was the Ottoman Beylic, a member of the Kayı tribe of Oghuz Turks from the Söđüt-Yeniţehir-Bilecik region. The Ottoman Beylic succeeded in establishing the union of the beylics in Anatolia in a short period of time. The Ottomans who fought against the neighboring Byzantine State, first crossed into Rumelia and then captured Constantinople in 1453 during the reign of Sultan Mehmed II (1451-1481), putting an end to the Byzantine Empire and thus, to the Middle Ages. In the reign of Sultan Mehmed II, who assumed the title of "the Conqueror", the Ottoman State entered into an era of rapid development which would last until the end of the sixteenth century. The Ottomans fought with the Serbs, Bulgarians, Hungarians, Venetians, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Britain, the Vatican, Spain and also France and Russia from time to time in the West; and in the East and the South, the Akkoyunlus, Tamerlanes, Mamelukes, Safavids and the Karamanids, which were all Turkish states. During the reign of Sultan Selim I (1512-1520), Egypt was conquered and the "Caliphate" passed from the Abbasids to the Ottoman dynasty. During the reign of Süleyman the Magnificent (1520-1566), the Ottoman State had a developed state organization, a powerful army and finances. The borders of the Empire extended from the Crimea in the North to Yemen and Sudan in the South, and from Iran and the Caspian Sea in the East to Vienna in the Northwest and Spain in the Southwest. However, the Ottoman Empire lost its economic and military superiority vis-a-vis Europe, which had developed rapidly with the Renaissance and the geographical discoveries starting with the sixteenth century and failed to adapt to the new developments. Thus, the balance of power developed in favor of the European States starting in the same century. The nationalist movements that started in the nineteenth century and the rebellions of the Balkan nations organized and supported by the European States and Russia brought about the emergence of independent states within the Ottoman territories in the Balkans. The military defeats which exacerbated the process of dissolution of the Empire forced the Ottoman administration to take steps to modernize the country. Thus, reform efforts were made constantly in the Empire throughout the nineteenth century. The most significant characteristic of the First Constitutional Period in 1876, which coincided with the reign of Sultan Abdülhamid II (1876-1909), was that it provided a constitution in the Western model for the first time. The constitution, which had been prepared by a group of intellectuals called the "Young Turks" forced Sultan Abdülhamid to accept this constitution and the Ottoman state was transformed into a constitutional state. However, Sultan Abdülhamid disbanded the Parliament in 1877 and terminated constitutional rule, using the Ottoman-Russian War of 1877-1879 as a pretext. The Committee of Union and Progress which started activities as an opposition organization founded by the Young Turks, first forced the Sultan to repromulgate the Constitution in 1908 and later seized power. However, the liberalization which started after Abdülhamid with the Second Constitution did not last long. The Tripoli War (1911-1912) against the Italians and the Balkan Wars (1912-1913) which erupted in the wake of these political developments weakened the new administration and the environment of freedom that started with the Second Constitution transformed the democratic environment into a single-party autocracy. The territories of the Ottoman State, which had allied with Germany in the First World War (1914-1918), were occupied by Britain, France, Russia and Greece following the Moudhros Armistice signed in 1918, after the Central Powers were defeated. The occupation of the homeland and the helplessness of the İstanbul government left no other choice but resistance for the Turkish people in Anatolia and Thrace. The Greek occupation accelerated the establishment of small defense fronts and the formation of regional resistance organizations. The Ottoman Empire had a state identity which provided the most tolerant administration of its age throughout the Middle Ages and the New Age. In fact, throughout the six hundred years of its administration it was able to hold together people of different religions, languages and races and undertook an important role in the protection of cultures and languages of these nations by providing freedom of religion and conscience. Furthermore, it contributed significantly to the history of civilization with both scientific and cultural masterpieces due to its cultural, scientific, artistic and state administrative experience and acquisitions of the previous Turkish states. The Ottoman Empire created rare masterpieces with its unique architecture, stone and wood carving, the art of tile-making, ornamentation, the art of miniature painting, calligraphy and bookbinding. Above all, it was influencial for hundreds of years in world politics. The National War of Independence (1919-1923). The National War of Independence was an effort to create a new state from the ruins of an Empire which had completed its life. These efforts lasted for four years because the imperialist states wanted to bring to life a new order suitable for their own political aims and interests from the ruins of this empire. The Turkish resistance movements were transformed into a complete war of independence when Mustafa Kemal landed at Samsun as the Inspector of the 9th Army on 19 May 1919. It achieved success against the armies supported by the large countries of the world and under very difficult conditions. Mustafa Kemal, who joined the Ottoman Army as a captain on 11 January 1905, proved his military talents on almost every front during the First World War. When the Ottoman Empire was considered to be defeated following the First World War, he was appointed Commander of the Lightning Armies. However, when this army was abolished, he returned to İstanbul. Mustafa Kemal, who understood that a political result could not be reached against the occupying powers which were oppressing the İstanbul Government, decided to go to Anatolia and carry on his struggle from there. He immediately started to organize national resistance and got in touch with all the army units and resistance organizations in Anatolia. He made the first call for a national movement with the circular he issued in Amasya on 22 June 1919. He organized this national struggle with the Erzurum and Sivas Congresses, giving it an official status. According to the National Pact program which took its final shape at the Sivas Congress, the territories where the Turks lived could not be partitioned in any form and limitations such as capitulations which would prevent the political, legal and financial development of the country would definitely not be accepted. When the Entente Powers officially occupied İstanbul and disbanded the Parliament on 16 March, Mustafa Kemal declared that the overeignty and life of the Ottoman Empire, which had lasted for six centuries, was ended. He announced that the Grand National Assembly would gather in Ankara, the headquarters of the national movement, on 23 April 1920 and the authority to represent the nation would only belong to this parliament as of this date. In fact, the Turkish Grand National Assembly (TGNA), which undertook the duties of saving and administrating the country and obtaining complete independence for the country, started activities on 23 April 1920 with extraordinary authority. Mustafa Kemal was elected as the President. The last connections between Ankara and İstanbul ended with the signing of the Treaty of Sevrčs on 12 August 1920. The agreement included very oppressive conditions for the Turks. According to the agreement, the Turks could be sovereign on only a small part of Anatolia and their state would be under the financial and military control of the foreign states. The efforts to set up an Armenian state in Eastern Anatolia, by using the Treaty of Sevrčs were made ineffective by the forces of the Army Commander Kazım Karabekir in this region. After the armistice was signed on 18 November 1920, peace was obtained on the Eastern front by the Gümrü Agreement which was signed on 2 December 1920. This was the first international agreement which was signed by the TGNA. On the Western front, the Greek Army which occupied İzmir on 15 May 1919 and started to spread throughout the Aegean region, was stopped by the First and Second İnönü Battles between January-April 1921. The Greek Army suffered a heavy defeat during the Sakarya Battles between August-September 1921. The Sakarya Battle victory provided significant diplomatic successes and France withdrew from Adana and the surroundings with the Ankara Agreement signed by Turkey and France in October 1921. Thus, another front was eliminated. After that, all the forces and resources of the country were gathered for a great attack to be made on the Western front. In fact, the Greek forces were defeated heavily during the Great Attack and Commander in Chief Battle between August-September 1922. İzmir was liberated on 9 September 1922. This military success would accelerate the founding of the Republic of Turkey. The Mudanya Armistice was signed between the Ankara Government and the Entente States on 11 October 1922 and it was decided to hold a conference in Lausanne one month later to discuss the conditions for a permanent peace treaty. However, when the Entente States also invited the İstanbul Government to send its delegation to this conference along with the Ankara Government, the TGNA declared that the Caliphate was separated from the Sultanate and that the sultanate was abolished. Mehmed IV (Vahideddin), the last Ottoman Sultan, secretly fled aboard a British ship on 17 November 1922. The Lausanne peace treaty negotiations, at which the Ankara Government participated as the sole representative, started on 21 November 1922. The negotiations, at which İsmet İnönü presided over the Turkish delegation, were suspended in February 1923 due to disagreements especially on the future of capitulations. The negotiations, which restarted in April 1923, resulted in the signing of the Lausanne Treaty on 24 July 1923. The treaty recognized the creation of a Turkish State with virtually the same borders as those of the National Pact of 1920 and guaranteed her complete independence. Thus, it marked the successful culmination of the National War of Independence. From 1923 to the Present The Government of the Turkish Grand National Assembly saved the country from being partitioned and occupied with the National War of Independence. A few months following the signing of the Lausanne Treaty, in which the Allied powers and the world recognized the independence and sovereignty of Turkey, the Republican People's Party was established on 9 September 1923 and Mustafa Kemal was elected as its chairman. The administrative staff of the party was composed of the military staff who directed the national struggle and high-level bureaucrats. The party led by the leader and the hero of the Turkish War of Independence stood for modernizing and westernizing reforms in the political, judicial and educational fields. These developments, however, disturbed the conservative elements in the National Assembly. The discussions flared up on such issues as what would happen now that the sultanate was abolished and how the parliament would now act, with which authorities and on whose behalf. The institutions and the office of the Caliphate, meanwhile stood in stark contradiction to the new administration. All these developments made a radical transformation compulsory. Thus, the Republic was proclaimed on 29 October 1923 in order to give the state a democratic form in the contemporary sense. Mustafa Kemal, the successful and great charismatic leader of the national struggle for independence, was elected unanimously as the first President of the Republic of Turkey. He appointed İsmet İnönü as the first Prime Minister. Thus, the discussions and doubts about the Presidency were ended. Four months later, the Caliphate, which was incompatible with the principle of republicanism, was abolished and the members of the Ottoman Dynasty were expatriated on 3 March 1924. Being aware of the fact that the separation of religious and state affairs and the provision of freedom of religion and conscience for individuals were among the prerequisites of forming a modern society, Mustafa Kemal initiated in the framework of the "principle of secularity" the most important changes. After the abolition of the Caliphate, a series of radical reforms were made in the institutions and mentality connected to the Caliphate. The Ministry of Shariah and Foundations was replaced by the Chairmanship of Religious Affairs and the Directorate of Foundations, both connected to the Prime Ministry. The religious school order was abolished on 3 March 1924 with the Unification of Education Law and all schools and educational matters were united under the Ministry of National Education. The Shariah Courts were replaced by secular courts with the Judicial Organization Law. The wearing of the turban and fez that were symbols of the former order were banned and the "hat" became the official headgear, following the promulgation of the Hat Law on 25 November 1925. Thus, the traditional symbols in attire, indicating differences of class, rank and religious order were removed. The international hour and calendar systems were adopted on 26 November 1925. The dervish lodges and tombs and the titles of tariqahs (sects) were abolished on 25 November 1925. A Turkish Civil Code was accepted on 17 February 1926 to replace the old civil code and the Shariah Laws which were the foundation stones of Ottoman law. The acceptance of the Turkish Civil Code made it necessary to secularize all legislation and the Code of Obligations, the Criminal Code and the Commercial Code were also rewritten according to contemporary principles. Important steps were taken concerning women's rights. Polygamy was forbidden and marriages, to be officially recognized, had to be performed in accordance with the civil code, not according to religious ceremonies as in the past. Also, a law was promulgated which made it necessary to get a court decree to get a divorce. Women obtained the right to vote and be elected in the municipal elections in 1930, in elections held for village councils in 1933 and in 1934, they obtained the right to vote and be elected into the Turkish Grand National Assembly. One of the most important reforms initiated by Atatürk was the preparation of a new Turkish alphabet by a board of linguists and academicians and the law which envisaged the use of Latin letters was adopted by the TGNA on 1 November 1928. The adoption of this new phonetic alphabet was an important step taken to help increase the literacy rate which had been very low. The old units of measurement and weight were changed in 1931. Commercial and economic transactions were facilitated with the acceptance of the metric system and a standard system of measurement was established throughout Turkey. The Surname Law was adopted on 21 June 1934. Mustafa Kemal, the founder of the new Turkish State and Republic, was given the surname of "Atatürk" (Father of the Turks) by the TGNA. The efforts to create a modern country based on secular foundations was also reflected in the Constitution. An amendment made to the Constitution in 1928 removed the clause which had stated that the religion of the state is Islam. A clause was put in the Constitution in 1937 stating that Turkey is a secular state. Along with these developments, Atatürk established the Turkish Historical Society in 1925 and Turkish Linguistic Society in 1932 in order to strengthen the foundations of the new national state and contribute to the development of a national consciousness among the Turkish people. The struggle for independence the Turks waged against the imperialist states and the radical social, political and economic reforms initiated by Atatürk, constituted an important example and model for the Third World countries. Domestic and Foreign Policy During the Atatürk Period. Atatürk realized the reforms with the leadership of the Republican People's Party (CHP), which had been established not as a party of any class or group in the society, but as a party of all the people, and these reforms were adopted by the people. A short time after the CHP was established, the first experiment for a transition to a multiparty system was made. The opponents of the secular and modernizing policies of the government, and who thought that the reforms were not compatible with the social and political structure of Turkey, including a group of commanders from the National War of Independence, such as Rauf Orbay, Kazım Karabekir and Ali Fuat Cebesoy, resigned from the CHP and established the Progressive Republican Party on 17 November 1924. Kazım Karabekir was elected as the chairman of this first opposition party. The Party was "conservative", not "reactionary" both regarding its program and the mentality of its founders. However, because it was the only opposition party, those whose interests were harmed by the reforms, supported this party, thus escalating the political passions. In fact, many who were against the Republic and secular developments joined this party. Meanwhile, the reactionary Sheik Said rebellion broke out in Southeastern Anatolia and the government closed the Progressive Republican Party on 3 June 1925. The second experiment with multiparty democracy in the Atatürk period, started with the establishment of the Free Republican Party on 12 August 1930. The Free Party was established with the approval of Atatürk himself. The party was established by Fethi Okyar, the former Prime Minister who was known for his opposition to İsmet İnönü. However, the new party grew at an unexpectedly rapid pace. The reactionary powers against the Republic, which also made use of the problems created by the world economic crisis in 1929, started to use the new party for their own objectives. Especially, due to the unfortunate events which occurred during Fethi Okyar's trip to İzmir, the party dissolved itself on 17 November 1930. The Republic administration first of all adopted a model based on private enterprise for developing the backward economy it had inherited, but in time it was forced to adopt statism to an increasing degree. During the Atatürk period, a foreign policy was followed based on the borders of the National Pact of 1920 and on peace. As the result of successful diplomacy, the Montreux Agreement was signed in 1936, ensuring that the İstanbul and the Dardanelles (Çanakkale) Straits were included in the national defense system. Friendship policies to be followed with all the neighboring countries were made widespread with the Balkan Pact in 1934 and the Sadabad Pact in 1937. The peace policy aimed at Europe and a correct evaluation of the international conditions made it possible to have Hatay rejoined to Turkey. Hatay, which had previously been given to the French, was first given independence and then it was rejoined to Turkey as the result of a referendum. Meanwhile, the League of Nations, refusing the Turkish requests, decided that the Mosul and Kirkuk regions should stay under British control. Hatay was the final foreign policy problem in which Atatürk took an interest. Atatürk, with his dynamism, strong intuitions, accurate assessments of the balances of power and correct evaluations of domestic and foreign conditions, left behind a state which had heartily adopted the reforms and modernized institutions, which had taken significant steps in the direction of the Western model when he passed away on 10 November 1938. The İnönü Period and the Difficult Years During the War. İsmet İnönü was elected as the second President of the Republic following Atatürk's death. He was the President and the party chairman at the same time. He led Turkey during the most difficult years of both the world and Turkey. He tried to overcome the difficulties stemming from the world economic crisis with a policy of statism during the period when he was the Prime Minister. He wanted to develop industry by means of the State Economic Enterprises (SEEs) and took important steps in this direction. İnönü's greatest success was in keeping Turkey out of the Second World War. His policy in this regard was based on establishing various balances at the same time and insisting adamantly on neutrality. When the Soviet-German Agreement was signed on 23 August 1939, İnönü thought that this agreement could harm Turkey and signed agreements with France and Britain on 13 October 1939 and obtained economic aid. Later he signed a nonaggression pact with the Soviet Union on 25 March 1941. In June 1941, a few days before Germany attacked the Soviet Union, İnönü signed a nonaggression pact with Germany. This policy of balances continued throughout the war. When the war was about to end, Turkey sided with the USA, Britain and the Soviet Union and declared war against Germany and Japan and signed the United Nations communiqué dated 24 January 1945. Turkey, which was officially invited to the San Francisco Conference on 5 March 1945, was among the founding members of the United Nations. Turkey did not enter the Second World War, but was negatively affected by the war. Throughout the war a large army was kept alert and ready, prices increased rapidly, many of the basic food items were rationed, many items could not be found or were sold on the black market.İnönü who was a farsighted statesman and politician, not only sensed the winds of freedom and democracy which had started to blow throughout the Western World after the Second World War, but also could not remain as a bystander to the social reactions stemming from the problems of the war. In fact, he first mentioned the necessity of "liberalizing the regime" in 1945. Subsequently, he started talking about "the need for an opposition party". He received with democratic tolerance the birth of the Democrat Party from within the CHP, its flourishing in 1946 and its coming to power with the 1950 election. Transition to the Multiparty Period. The Republican People's Party (CHP), the ruling party, was also influenced by the winds of freedom and democracy that started to blow throughout the world and especially in Europe towards the end of the war and after the war. A strong opposition movement appeared from within the party which complained about the oppressive management of the party and wanted more freedom and democracy. The tolerant attitude of President İnönü also encouraged this movement. Celal Bayar, Atatürk's last Prime Minister and Refik Koraltan also joined this opposition movement which was led at the beginning by Fuat Köprülü and Adnan Menderes. These four deputies of Parliament filed a famous motion to the Parliamentary Group of the CHP, which was later referred to as the "Quartet Motion". They wanted to change the party regulations and some of the laws. Following the refusal of their motion, Bayar resigned from the CHP and from the Parliament. Menderes, Köprülü, and Koraltan were expelled from the CHP for not conforming to party discipline. Bayar, Menderes, Köprülü and Koraltan established the Democrat Party (DP) on 7 January 1946. The establishment of a new party was met with enthusiasm by the people who had become tired of the oppressive policies of a single party rule. The DP which defended a liberal economic approach and democracy, developed rapidly in a short period of time. It succeeded in entering Parliament in the 1946 elections and came to power as a single power in the 14 May 1950 elections. Thus, the single party period ended in Turkey and for the first time a change in power was realized with the votes of the people. The DP increased its votes even more in the 1954 elections and strengthened its power. Although it lost votes in the 1957 elections, it remained in power until 27 May 1960. The DP brought a noticeable liveliness to the economy and increased the living standards of people substantially during its 10 years in power. The economy developed, the earnings of the people increased, many villages were provided with roads, water and electricity. New areas were taken under cultivation, agricultural mechanization started, trade was accelerated and important steps were taken for industrialization. The period of orienting foreign capital and commercial capital to industry was started. Close cooperation with the United States that had been adopted during the İnönü period acquired new dimensions in the foreign policy of the DP period. The visit to İstanbul of the US warship Missouri in 1946, the start of the first military and economic aid from America with the implementation of the "Truman Doctrine" and the "Marshall Plan" strengthened the Western-oriented foundations of the Turkish foreign policy, which had been laid by İnönü. Turkey participated in the Korean War, became a member of NATO in 1952 and foreign capital investments and petroleum explorations by foreigners were encouraged during the DP period. The DP
started to lose the support of the people as of 1954. The
main reasons for this were the end of favorable cycles in
the foreign markets and a slow down in economic growth. In
particular, rapidly increasing inflation upset the financial
situation of the fixed income population in urban areas, the
military and civilian bureaucrats. Along with the
dissatisfaction of the people, the criticisms of the
opposition and the media became stronger. In response to the
criticism, the ruling party took measures which indicated
that it had lost control and started to resort to
antidemocratic methods. The obstacles which İnönü faced
during his tours of the country, increased the censorship of
the press and finally, along with the establishment of an
"Investigation Commission" a widespread debate began on the
regime in Turkey. The university students started
demonstrations. The situation became even more tense with
the declaration of martial law and eventually led to the
military intervention of 27 May 1960. The
CHP attained the majority of the votes in the 1973
elections. Ecevit, the chairman of the CHP, established a
coalition government with the National Salvation Party (MSP)
which reflected Islamic trends. Although this interesting
reconciliation created some positive outcomes, the shock
waves of the global oil crisis had adverse effects on
Turkey. Meanwhile, a coup carried out by the supporters of
ENOSIS (Union with Greece) against the Makarios
administration on Cyprus during June 1974 forced Turkey to
intervene militarily by exerting her rights as a guarantor
state accorded to her by the Cyprus Constitution of 1960.
The Cyprus problem had important economic and political
repercussions. The negative attitude of the West towards
Turkey, an economic embargo applied on Turkey by the US and
the expenses of the Cyprus Operation created significant
problems in Turkey. When the CHP and MSP disagreed on
foreign policy following the Cyprus Peace Operation, the
coalition came to an end. Sadi Irmak, a senator, was
assigned by President Korutürk to form a new government; but
he could not obtain a vote of confidence. The
most important development in foreign policy was the
relative improvement observed in Turkey's relations with the
European countries. As a matter of fact, the Advisory
Assembly of the Council of Europe which had suspended its
relations with Turkey, accepted the participation of Turkish
parliamentarians in this Assembly in May 1984. On the other
hand, Turkey, which followed a policy of neutrality during
the Iran-Iraq War that lasted for years, positively
developed her trade with both countries. Improvements
continued in US relations, which had been revived after
permission was given to Greece to return to the military
wing of NATO. In this period, Turkey obtained great
increases in exports and tourism revenues due to the
intensive trade relations established especially with the
Middle Eastern and European countries. |
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